CHAPTER I ¶
No one can doubt that the magistrate ought greatly to interest himself in the care of youth; for where it is neglected it is hurtful to the city, for every state ought to be governed according to its particular nature; for the form and manners of each government are peculiar to itself; and these, as they originally established it, so they usually still preserve it. For instance, democratic forms and manners a democracy; oligarchic, an oligarchy: but, universally, the best manners produce the best government. Besides, as in every business and art there are some things which men are to learn first and be made accustomed to, which are necessary to perform their several works; so it is evident that the same thing is necessary in the practice of virtue. As there is one end in view in every city, it is evident that education ought to be one and the same in each; and that this should be a common care, and not the individual's, as it now is, when every one takes care of his own children separately; and their instructions are particular also, each person teaching them as they please; but what ought to be engaged in ought to be common to all. Besides, no one ought to think that any citizen belongs to him in particular, but to the state in general; for each one is a part of the state, and it is the natural duty of each part to regard the good of the whole: and for this the Lacedaemonians may be praised; for they give the greatest attention to education, and make it public. It is evident, then, that there should be laws concerning education, and that it should be public. ¶
CHAPTER II ¶
What education is, and how children ought to be instructed, is what should be well known; for there are doubts concerning the business of it, as all people do not agree in those things they would have a child taught, both with respect to their improvement in virtue and a happy life: nor is it clear whether the object of it should be to improve the reason or rectify the morals. From the present mode of education we cannot determine with certainty to which men incline, whether to instruct a child in what will be useful to him in life; or what tends to virtue, and what is excellent: for all these things have their separate defenders. As to virtue, there is no particular [1337b] in which they all agree: for as all do not equally esteem all virtues, it reasonably follows that they will not cultivate the same. It is evident that what is necessary ought to be taught to all: but that which is necessary for one is not necessary for all; for there ought to be a distinction between the employment of a freeman and a slave. The first of these should be taught everything useful which will not make those who know it mean. Every work is to be esteemed mean, and every art and every discipline which renders the body, the mind, or the understanding of freemen unfit for the habit and practice of virtue: for which reason all those arts which tend to deform the body are called mean, and all those employments which are exercised for gain; for they take off from the freedom of the mind and render it sordid. There are also some liberal arts which are not improper for freemen to apply to in a certain degree; but to endeavour to acquire a perfect skill in them is exposed to the faults I have just mentioned; for there is a great deal of difference in the reason for which any one does or learns anything: for it is not illiberal to engage in it for one's self, one's friend, or in the cause of virtue; while, at the same time, to do it for the sake of another may seem to be acting the part of a servant and a slave. The mode of instruction which now prevails seems to partake of both parts. ¶
CHAPTER III ¶
There are four things which it is usual to teach children—reading, gymnastic exercises, and music, to which (in the fourth place) some add painting. Reading and painting are both of them of singular use in life, and gymnastic exercises, as productive of courage. As to music, some persons may doubt, as most persons now use it for the sake of pleasure: but those who originally made it part of education did it because, as has been already said, nature requires that we should not only be properly employed, but to be able to enjoy leisure honourably: for this (to repeat what I have already said) is of all things the principal. But, though both labour and rest are necessary, yet the latter is preferable to the first; and by all means we ought to learn what we should do when at rest: for we ought not to employ that time at play; for then play would be the necessary business of our lives. But if this cannot be, play is more necessary for those who labour than those who are at rest: for he who labours requires relaxation; which play will supply: for as labour is attended with pain and continued exertion, it is necessary that play should be introduced, under proper regulations, as a medicine: for such an employment of the mind is a relaxation to it, and eases with pleasure. [1338a] Now rest itself seems to partake of pleasure, of happiness, and an agreeable life: but this cannot be theirs who labour, but theirs who are at rest; for he who labours, labours for the sake of some end which he has not: but happiness is an end which all persons think is attended with pleasure and not with pain: but all persons do not agree in making this pleasure consist in the same thing; for each one has his particular standard, correspondent to his own habits; but the best man proposes the best pleasure, and that which arises from the noblest actions. But it is evident, that to live a life of rest there are some things which a man must learn and be instructed in; and that the object of this learning and this instruction centres in their acquisition: but the learning and instruction which is given for labour has for its object other things; for which reason the ancients made music a part of education; not as a thing necessary, for it is not of that nature, nor as a thing useful, as reading, in the common course of life, or for managing of a family, or for learning anything as useful in public life. Painting also seems useful to enable a man to judge more accurately of the productions of the finer arts: nor is it like the gymnastic exercises, which contribute to health and strength; for neither of these things do we see produced by music; there remains for it then to be the employment of our rest, which they had in view who introduced it; and, thinking it a proper employment for freemen, to them they allotted it; as Homer sings: ¶
"How right to call Thalia to the feast:" ¶
and of some others he says: ¶
"The bard was call'd, to ravish every ear:" ¶
and, in another place, he makes Ulysses say the happiest part of man's life is ¶
"When at the festal board, in order plac'd, They hear the song." ¶
It is evident, then, that there is a certain education in which a child may be instructed, not as useful nor as necessary, but as noble and liberal: but whether this is one or more than one, and of what sort they are, and how to be taught, shall be considered hereafter: we are now got so far on our way as to show that we have the testimony of the ancients in our favour, by what they have delivered down upon education—for music makes this plain. Moreover, it is necessary to instruct children in what is useful, not only on account of its being useful in itself, as, for instance, to learn to read, but also as the means of acquiring other different sorts of instruction: thus they should be instructed in painting, not only to prevent their being mistaken in purchasing pictures, or in buying or selling of vases, but rather as it makes [1338b] them judges of the beauties of the human form; for to be always hunting after the profitable ill agrees with great and freeborn souls. As it is evident whether a boy should be first taught morals or reasoning, and whether his body or his understanding should be first cultivated, it is plain that boys should be first put under the care of the different masters of the gymnastic arts, both to form their bodies and teach them their exercises. ¶
CHAPTER IV ¶
Now those states which seem to take the greatest care of their children's education, bestow their chief attention on wrestling, though it both prevents the increase of the body and hurts the form of it. This fault the Lacedaemonians did not fall into, for they made their children fierce by painful labour, as chiefly useful to inspire them with courage: though, as we have already often said, this is neither the only thing nor the principal thing necessary to attend to; and even with respect to this they may not thus attain their end; for we do not find either in other animals, or other nations, that courage necessarily attends the most cruel, but rather the milder, and those who have the dispositions of lions: for there are many people who are eager both to kill men and to devour human flesh, as the Achaeans and Heniochi in Pontus, and many others in Asia, some of whom are as bad, others worse than these, who indeed live by tyranny, but are men of no courage. Nay, we know that the Lacedaemonians themselves, while they continued those painful labours, and were superior to all others (though now they are inferior to many, both in war and gymnastic exercises), did not acquire their superiority by training their youth to these exercises, but because those who were disciplined opposed those who were not disciplined at all. What is fair and honourable ought then to take place in education of what is fierce and cruel: for it is not a wolf, nor any other wild beast, which will brave any noble danger, but rather a good man. So that those who permit boys to engage too earnestly in these exercises, while they do not take care to instruct them in what is necessary to do, to speak the real truth, render them mean and vile, accomplished only in one duty of a citizen, and in every other respect, as reason evinces, good for nothing. Nor should we form our judgments from past events, but from what we see at present: for now they have rivals in their mode of education, whereas formerly they had not. That gymnastic exercises are useful, and in what manner, is admitted; for during youth it is very proper to go through a course of those which are most gentle, omitting that violent diet and those painful exercises which are prescribed as necessary; that they may not prevent the growth of the body: and it is no small proof that they have this effect, that amongst the Olympic candidates we can scarce find two or three who have gained a victory both when boys and men: because the necessary exercises they went through when young deprived them of their strength. When they have allotted three years from the time of puberty to other parts of education, they are then of a proper age to submit to labour and a regulated diet; for it is impossible for the mind and body both to labour at the same time, as they are productive of contrary evils to each other; the labour of the body preventing the progress of the mind, and the mind of the body. ¶
CHAPTER V ¶
With respect to music we have already spoken a little in a doubtful manner upon this subject. It will be proper to go over again more particularly what we then said, which may serve as an introduction to what any other person may choose to offer thereon; for it is no easy matter to distinctly point out what power it has, nor on what accounts one should apply it, whether as an amusement and refreshment, as sleep or wine; as these are nothing serious, but pleasing, and the killers of care, as Euripides says; for which reason they class in the same order and use for the same purpose all these, namely, sleep, wine, and music, to which some add dancing; or shall we rather suppose that music tends to be productive of virtue, having a power, as the gymnastic exercises have to form the body in a certain way, to influence the manners so as to accustom its professors to rejoice rightly? or shall we say, that it is of any service in the conduct of life, and an assistant to prudence? for this also is a third property which has been attributed to it. Now that boys are not to be instructed in it as play is evident; for those who learn don't play, for to learn is rather troublesome; neither is it proper to permit boys at their age to enjoy perfect leisure; for to cease to improve is by no means fit for what is as yet imperfect; but it may be thought that the earnest attention of boys in this art is for the sake of that amusement they will enjoy when they come to be men and completely formed; but, if this is the case, why are they themselves to learn it, and not follow the practice of the kings of the Medes and Persians, who enjoy the pleasure of music by hearing others play, and being shown its beauties by them; for of necessity those must be better skilled therein who make this science their particular study and business, than those who have only spent so much time at it as was sufficient just to learn the principles of it. But if this is a reason for a child's being taught anything, they ought also to learn the art of cookery, but this is absurd. The same doubt occurs if music has a power of improving the manners; for why should they on this account themselves learn it, and not reap every advantage of regulating the passions or forming a judgment [1339b] on the merits of the performance by hearing others, as the Lacedaemonians; for they, without having ever learnt music, are yet able to judge accurately what is good and what is bad; the same reasoning may be applied if music is supposed to be the amusement of those who live an elegant and easy life, why should they learn themselves, and not rather enjoy the benefit of others' skill. Let us here consider what is our belief of the immortal gods in this particular. Now we find the poets never represent Jupiter himself as singing and playing; nay, we ourselves treat the professors of these arts as mean people, and say that no one would practise them but a drunkard or a buffoon. But probably we may consider this subject more at large hereafter. The first question is, whether music is or is not to make a part of education? and of those three things which have been assigned as its proper employment, which is the right? Is it to instruct, to amuse, or to employ the vacant hours of those who live at rest? or may not all three be properly allotted to it? for it appears to partake of them all; for play is necessary for relaxation, and relaxation pleasant, as it is a medicine for that uneasiness which arises from labour. It is admitted also that a happy life must be an honourable one, and a pleasant one too, since happiness consists in both these; and we all agree that music is one of the most pleasing things, whether alone or accompanied with a voice; as Musseus says, "Music's the sweetest joy of man;" for which reason it is justly admitted into every company and every happy life, as having the power of inspiring joy. So that from this any one may suppose that it is necessary to instruct young persons in it; for all those pleasures which are harmless are not only conducive to the final end of life, but serve also as relaxations; and, as men are but rarely in the attainment of that final end, they often cease from their labour and apply to amusement, with no further view than to acquire the pleasure attending it. It is therefore useful to enjoy such pleasures as these. There are some persons who make play and amusement their end, and probably that end has some pleasure annexed to it, but not what should be; but while men seek the one they accept the other for it; because there is some likeness in human actions to the end; for the end is pursued for the sake of nothing else that attends it; but for itself only; and pleasures like these are sought for, not on account of what follows them, but on account of what has gone before them, as labour and grief; for which reason they seek for happiness in these sort of pleasures; and that this is the reason any one may easily perceive. That music should be pursued, not on this account only, but also as it is very serviceable during the hours of relaxation from labour, probably no [1340a] one doubts; we should also inquire whether besides this use it may not also have another of nobler nature—and we ought not only to partake of the common pleasure arising from it (which all have the sensation of, for music naturally gives pleasure, therefore the use of it is agreeable to all ages and all dispositions); but also to examine if it tends anything to improve our manners and our souls. And this will be easily known if we feel our dispositions any way influenced thereby; and that they are so is evident from many other instances, as well as the music at the Olympic games; and this confessedly fills the soul with enthusiasm; but enthusiasm is an affection of the soul which strongly agitates the disposition. Besides, all those who hear any imitations sympathise therewith; and this when they are conveyed even without rhythm or verse. Moreover, as music is one of those things which are pleasant, and as virtue itself consists in rightly enjoying, loving, and hating, it is evident that we ought not to learn or accustom ourselves to anything so much as to judge right and rejoice in honourable manners and noble actions. But anger and mildness, courage and modesty, and their contraries, as well as all other dispositions of the mind, are most naturally imitated by music and poetry; which is plain by experience, for when we hear these our very soul is altered; and he who is affected either with joy or grief by the imitation of any objects, is in very nearly the same situation as if he was affected by the objects themselves; thus, if any person is pleased with seeing a statue of any one on no other account but its beauty, it is evident that the sight of the original from whence it was taken would also be pleasing; now it happens in the other senses there is no imitation of manners; that is to say, in the touch and the taste; in the objects of sight, a very little; for these are merely representations of things, and the perceptions which they excite are in a manner common to all. Besides, statues and paintings are not properly imitations of manners, but rather signs and marks which show the body is affected by some passion. However, the difference is not great, yet young men ought not to view the paintings of Pauso, but of Polygnotus, or any other painter or statuary who expresses manners. But in poetry and music there are imitations of manners; and this is evident, for different harmonies differ from each other so much by nature, that those who hear them are differently affected, and are not in the same disposition of mind when one is performed as when another is; the one, for instance, occasions grief 13406 and contracts the soul, as the mixed Lydian: others soften the mind, and as it were dissolve the heart: others fix it in a firm and settled state, such is the power of the Doric music only; while the Phrygian fills the soul with enthusiasm, as has been well described by those who have written philosophically upon this part of education; for they bring examples of what they advance from the things themselves. The same holds true with respect to rhythm; some fix the disposition, others occasion a change in it; some act more violently, others more liberally. From what has been said it is evident what an influence music has over the disposition of the mind, and how variously it can fascinate it: and if it can do this, most certainly it is what youth ought to be instructed in. And indeed the learning of music is particularly adapted to their disposition; for at their time of life they do not willingly attend to anything which is not agreeable; but music is naturally one of the most agreeable things; and there seems to be a certain connection between harmony and rhythm; for which reason some wise men held the soul itself to be harmony; others, that it contains it. ¶
CHAPTER VI ¶
We will now determine whether it is proper that children should be taught to sing, and play upon any instrument, which we have before made a matter of doubt. Now, it is well known that it makes a great deal of difference when you would qualify any one in any art, for the person himself to learn the practical part of it; for it is a thing very difficult, if not impossible, for a man to be a good judge of what he himself cannot do. It is also very necessary that children should have some employment which will amuse them; for which reason the rattle of Archytas seems well contrived, which they give children to play with, to prevent their breaking those things which are about the house; for at their age they cannot sit still: this therefore is well adapted to infants, as instruction ought to be their rattle as they grow up; hence it is evident that they should be so taught music as to be able to practise it. Nor is it difficult to say what is becoming or unbecoming of their age, or to answer the objections which some make to this employment as mean and low. In the first place, it is necessary for them to practise, that they may be judges of the art: for which reason this should be done when they are young; but when they are grown older the practical part may be dropped; while they will still continue judges of what is excellent in the art, and take a proper pleasure therein, from the knowledge they acquired of it in their youth. As to the censure which some persons throw upon music, as something mean and low, it is not difficult to answer that, if we will but consider how far we propose those who are to be educated so as to become good citizens should be instructed in this art, [1341a] and what music and what rhythms they should be acquainted with; and also what instruments they should play upon; for in these there is probably a difference. Such then is the proper answer to that censure: for it must be admitted, that in some cases nothing can prevent music being attended, to a certain degree, with the bad effects which are ascribed to it; it is therefore clear that the learning of it should never prevent the business of riper years; nor render the body effeminate, and unfit for the business of war or the state; but it should be practised by the young, judged of by the old. That children may learn music properly, it is necessary that they should not be employed in those parts of it which are the objects of dispute between the masters in that science; nor should they perform such pieces as are wondered at from the difficulty of their execution; and which, from being first exhibited in the public games, are now become a part of education; but let them learn so much of it as to be able to receive proper pleasure from excellent music and rhythms; and not that only which music must make all animals feel, and also slaves and boys, but more. It is therefore plain what instruments they should use; thus, they should never be taught to play upon the flute, or any other instrument which requires great skill, as the harp or the like, but on such as will make them good judges of music, or any other instruction: besides, the flute is not a moral instrument, but rather one that will inflame the passions, and is therefore rather to be used when the soul is to be animated than when instruction is intended. Let me add also, that there is something therein which is quite contrary to what education requires; as the player on the flute is prevented from speaking: for which reason our forefathers very properly forbade the use of it to youth and freemen, though they themselves at first used it; for when their riches procured them greater leisure, they grew more animated in the cause of virtue; and both before and after the Median war their noble actions so exalted their minds that they attended to every part of education; selecting no one in particular, but endeavouring to collect the whole: for which reason they introduced the flute also, as one of the instruments they were to learn to play on. At Lacedaemon the choregus himself played on the flute; and it was so common at Athens that almost every freeman understood it, as is evident from the tablet which Thrasippus dedicated when he was choregus; but afterwards they rejected it as dangerous; having become better judges of what tended to promote virtue and what did not. For the same reason many of the ancient instruments were thrown aside, as the dulcimer and the lyre; as also those which were to inspire those who played on them with pleasure, and which required a nice finger and great skill to play well on. What the ancients tell us, by way of fable, of the flute is indeed very rational; namely, that after Minerva had found it, she threw it away: nor are they wrong who say that the goddess disliked it for deforming the face of him who played thereon: not but that it is more probable that she rejected it as the knowledge thereof contributed nothing to the improvement of the mind. Now, we regard Minerva as the inventress of arts and sciences. As we disapprove of a child's being taught to understand instruments, and to play like a master (which we would have confined to those who are candidates for the prize in that science; for they play not to improve themselves in virtue, but to please those who hear them, and gratify their importunity); therefore we think the practice of it unfit for freemen; but then it should be confined to those who are paid for doing it; for it usually gives people sordid notions, for the end they have in view is bad: for the impertinent spectator is accustomed to make them change their music; so that the artists who attend to him regulate their bodies according to his motions. ¶
CHAPTER VII ¶
We are now to enter into an inquiry concerning harmony and rhythm; whether all sorts of these are to be employed in education, or whether some peculiar ones are to be selected; and also whether we should give the same directions to those who are engaged in music as part of education, or whether there is something different from these two. Now, as all music consists in melody and rhythm, we ought not to be unacquainted with the power which each of these has in education; and whether we should rather choose music in which melody prevails, or rhythm: but when I consider how many things have been well written upon these subjects, not only by some musicians of the present age, but also by some philosophers who are perfectly skilled in that part of music which belongs to education; we will refer those who desire a very particular knowledge therein to those writers, and shall only treat of it in general terms, without descending to particulars. Melody is divided by some philosophers, whose notions we approve of, into moral, practical, and that which fills the mind with enthusiasm: they also allot to each of these a particular kind of harmony which naturally corresponds therewith: and we say that music should not be applied to one purpose only, but many; both for instruction and purifying the soul (now I use the word purifying at present without any explanation, but shall speak more at large of it in my Poetics); and, in the third place, as an agreeable manner of spending the time and a relaxation from the uneasiness of the mind. [1342a] It is evident that all harmonies are to be used; but not for all purposes; but the most moral in education: but to please the ear, when others play, the most active and enthusiastic; for that passion which is to be found very strong in some souls is to be met with also in all; but the difference in different persons consists in its being in a less or greater degree, as pity, fear, and enthusiasm also; which latter is so powerful in some as to overpower the soul: and yet we see those persons, by the application of sacred music to soothe their mind, rendered as sedate and composed as if they had employed the art of the physician: and this must necessarily happen to the compassionate, the fearful, and all those who are subdued by their passions: nay, all persons, as far as they are affected with those passions, admit of the same cure, and are restored to tranquillity with pleasure. In the same manner, all music which has the power of purifying the soul affords a harmless pleasure to man. Such, therefore, should be the harmony and such the music which those who contend with each other in the theatre should exhibit: but as the audience is composed of two sorts of people, the free and the well-instructed, the rude the mean mechanics, and hired servants, and a long collection of the like, there must be some music and some spectacles to please and soothe them; for as their minds are as it were perverted from their natural habits, so also is there an unnatural harmony, and overcharged music which is accommodated to their taste: but what is according to nature gives pleasure to every one, therefore those who are to contend upon the theatre should be allowed to use this species of music. But in education ethic melody and ethic harmony should be used, which is the Doric, as we have already said, or any other which those philosophers who are skilful in that music which is to be employed in education shall approve of. But Socrates, in Plato's Republic, is very wrong when he [1342b] permits only the Phrygian music to be used as well as the Doric, particularly as amongst other instruments he banishes the flute; for the Phrygian music has the same power in harmony as the flute has amongst the instruments; for they are both pathetic and raise the mind: and this the practice of the poets proves; for in their bacchanal songs, or whenever they describe any violent emotions of the mind, the flute is the instrument they chiefly use: and the Phrygian harmony is most suitable to these subjects. Now, that the dithyrambic measure is Phrygian is allowed by general consent; and those who are conversant in studies of this sort bring many proofs of it; as, for instance, when Philoxenus endeavoured to compose dithyrambic music for Doric harmony, he naturally fell back again into Phrygian, as being fittest for that purpose; as every one indeed agrees, that the Doric music is most serious, and fittest to inspire courage: and, as we always commend the middle as being between the two extremes, and the Doric has this relation with respect to other harmonies, it is evident that is what the youth ought to be instructed in. There are two things to be taken into consideration, both what is possible and what is proper; every one then should chiefly endeavour to attain those things which contain both these qualities: but this is to be regulated by different times of life; for instance, it is not easy for those who are advanced in years to sing such pieces of music as require very high notes, for nature points out to them those which are gentle and require little strength of voice (for which reason some who are skilful in music justly find fault with Socrates for forbidding the youth to be instructed in gentle harmony; as if, like wine, it would make them drunk, whereas the effect of that is to render men bacchanals, and not make them languid): these therefore are what should employ those who are grown old. Moreover, if there is any harmony which is proper for a child's age, as being at the same time elegant and instructive, as the Lydian of all others seems chiefly to be-These then are as it were the three boundaries of education, moderation, possibility, and decorum. ¶
INDEX ¶
ACHILLES, 76 ¶
Act of the city, what, 69 ¶
Actions, their original spring, i ¶
Administration, 76; whether to be shared by the whole community, 203 ¶
AEsumnetes, 96 ¶
AEthiopia, in what manner the power of the state is there regulated, 112 ¶
Alterations in government, whence they arise, 142; what they are, 143 ¶
Ambractia, the government of, changed, 151 ¶
Andromadas Reginus, a lawgiver to the Thracian Calcidians, 65 ¶
Animals, their different provisions by nature, 14; intended by nature for the benefit of man, 14; what constitutes their different species, 113 ¶
Animals, tame, why better than wild, 8 ¶
Arbitrator and judge, their difference, 49 ¶
Architas his rattle, 248 ¶
Areopagus, senate of, 63 ¶
Argonauts refuse to take Hercules with them, 93 ¶
Aristocracies, causes of commotions in them, 157; chief cause of their alteration, 158; may degenerate into an oligarchy, 79 ¶
Aristocracy, what, 78; treated of, 120; its object, 121 ¶
Art, works of, which most excellent, 20 ¶
Artificers and slaves, their difference, 24 ¶
Assemblies, public, advantageous to a democracy, 134 ¶
Assembly, public, its proper business, 133 ¶
Athens, different dispositions of the citizens of, 149 ¶
Barter, its original, 15 ¶
Being, what the nature of every one is, 3 ¶
Beings, why some command, others obey, 2 ¶
Body by nature to be governed, 8; requires our care before the soul, 232 ¶
Calchis, the government of, changed, 151 ¶
Calcidians, 65 ¶
Carthaginian government described, 60 ¶
Census in a free state should be as extensive as possible, 131; how to be altered, 162 ¶
Charondas supposed to be the scholar of Zaleucus, 64 ¶
Child, how to be managed when first born, 235; should be taught nothing till he is five years old, 235; how then to be educated, 236 ¶
Children, the proper government of, 22; what their proper virtues, 23; what they are usually taught, 240 ¶
Cities, how governed at first, 3; what, 3; the work of nature, 3; prior in contemplation to a family, or an individual, 4 ¶
Citizen, who is one? 66, 68; should know both how to command and obey, 73 ¶
Citizens must have some things in common, 26; should be exempted from servile labour, 51; privileges different in different governments, 68; if illegally made, whether illegal, 69; who admitted to be, 75; in the best states ought not to follow merchandise, 216 ¶
City, may be too much one, 27, 35; what, 66, 82; when it continues the same, 70; for whose sake established, 76; its end, 83; of what parts made up, 113; best composed of equals, 126 ¶
City of the best form, what its establishment ought to be, 149; wherein its greatness consists, 149; may be either too large or too small, 209; what should be its situation, 211; whether proper near the sea, 211; ought to be divided by families into different sorts of men, 218 ¶
City and confederacy, their difference, 37; wherein it should be one, 27 ¶
Command amongst equals should be in rotation, 101 ¶
Common meals not well established at Lacedaemon-well at Crete, 56; the model from whence the Lacedaemonian was taken, 56; inferior to it in some respects, 56 ¶
Community, its recommendations deceitful, 34; into what people it may be divided, 194 ¶
Community of children, 29, 30; inconveniences attending it, 31 ¶
Community of goods, its inconveniences, 28; destructive of modesty and liberality, 34 ¶
Community of wives, its inconveniences, 27 ¶
Contempt a cause of sedition, 146 ¶
Courage of a man different from a woman's, 74 ¶
Courts, how many there ought to be, 140 ¶
Courts of justice should be few in a small state, 192 ¶
Cretan customs similar to the Lacedasmonian, 57; assembly open to every citizen, 58 ¶
Cretans, their power, 58; their public meals, how conducted 58 ¶
Crete, the government of, 57; description of the island of 57 ¶
Customs at Carthage, Lacedaemon, and amongst the Scythians and Iberians, concerning those who had killed an enemy, 204, 205 ¶
Dadalus's statues, 6. ¶
Delphos, an account of a sedition there, 150 ¶
Demagogues, their influence in a democracy, 116. ¶
Democracies, arose out of tyrannies, 100; whence they arose, 142; when changed into tyrannies, 153; their different sorts, 184, 188; general rules for their establishment, 185; should not be made too perfect, 191 ¶
Democracy, what, 79, 80; its definition, 112, 113; different sorts of, 115, 118; its object, 122; how subverted in the Isle of Cos, 152 ¶
Democracy and aristocracy, how they may be blended together, 163 ¶
Democratical state, its foundation, 184 ¶
Despotic power absurd, 205 ¶
Dion, his noble resolution, 171 ¶
Dionysius, his taxes, 175 ¶
Dissolution of kingdoms and tyrannies, 169 ¶
Domestic employments of men and women different, 74 ¶
Domestic government, its object, 77 ¶
Domestic society the first, 3 ¶
Draco, 65 ¶
Dyrrachium, government of, 101 ¶
Economy and money-getting, difference, 17 ¶
Education necessary for the happiness of the city, 90; of all things most necessary to preserve the state, 166; what it ought to be, 166; the objects of it, 228, 229; should be taken care of by the magistrate, and correspond to the nature of government, 238; should be a common care, and regulated by laws, 238 ¶
Employment, one to be allotted to one person in an extensive government, 136 ¶
Employments in the state, how to be disposed of, 88-90; whether all should be open to all, 216 ¶
Ephialtes abridges the power of the senate of Areopagus, 63 ¶
Ephori, at Sparta, their power too great, 54; improperly chosen, 54; flattered by their kings, 54; the supreme judges, 55; manner of life too indulgent, 55 ¶
Epidamnus, an account of a revolution there, 150 ¶
Equality, how twofold, 143; in a democracy, how to be procured, 186 ¶
Euripides quoted, 72 ¶
Family government, of what it consists, 5 ¶
Father should not be too young, 232 ¶
Females and slaves, wherein they differ, 2; why upon a level amongst barbarians, 3 ¶
Forfeitures, how to be applied, 192 ¶
Fortune improper pretension for power, 91 ¶
Freemen in general, what power they ought to have, 86 ¶
Free state treated of, 121; how it arises out of a democracy and oligarchy, 122, 123 ¶
Friendship weakened by a community of children, 31 ¶
General, the office of, how to be disposed of, 98 ¶
Gods, why supposed subject to kingly government, 3 ¶
Good, relative to man, how divided, 201 ¶
Good and evil, the perception of, necessary to form a family and a city, 4 ¶
Good fortune something different from happiness, 202 ¶
Government should continue as much as possible in the same hands, 28; in what manner it should be in rotation, 28; what, 66; which best, of a good man or good laws, 98; good, to what it should owe its preservation, 124; what the best, 225 ¶
Government of the master over the slave sometimes reciprocally useful, ii ¶
Governments, how different from each other, 67; whether more than one form should be established, 76; should endeavour to prevent others from being too powerful— instances of it, 93; how compared to music, in; in general, to what they owe their preservation, 160 ¶
Governments, political, regal, family, and servile, their difference from each other, i ¶
Governors and governed, whether their virtues are the same or different, 23; whether they should be the same persons or different, 227 ¶
Grecians, their superiority over other people, 213 ¶
Guards of a king natives, 96,168; of a tyrant foreigners, 96, 168 ¶
Gymnastic exercises, when to be performed, 223; how far they should be made a part of education, 242, 243 ¶
Happiness, wherein it consists, 207 ¶
Happy life, where most likely to be found, 202 ¶
Harmony, whether all kinds of it are to be used in education, 251 ¶
Helots troublesome to the Lacedaemonians, 87 ¶
Herdsmen compose the second-best democracy, 189 ¶
Hippodamus, an account of, 46; his plan of government, 46, 47: objected to, 47, 48 ¶
Homer quoted, 95, 116 ¶
Honours, an inequality of, occasions seditions, 44 ¶
Horse most suitable to an oligarchy, 195 ¶
Houses, private, their best form, 221 ¶
Human flesh devoured by some nations, 242 ¶
Husbandmen compose the best democracy, 189; will choose to govern according to law, 118 ¶
Husbandry, art of, whether part of money-getting, 13 ¶
Instruments, their difference from each other, 6; wherein they differ from possessions, 6 ¶
Italy, its ancient boundary, 218 ¶
Jason's declaration, 72 ¶
Judge should not act as an arbitrator, 48, 49; which is best for an individual, or the people in general, 98, 99 ¶
Judges, many better than one, 102; of whom to consist, 102; how many different sorts are necessary, 141 ¶
Judicial part of government, how to be divided, 140 ¶
Jurymen, particular powers sometimes appointed to that office, 68 ¶
Justice, what, 88; the course of, impeded in Crete, 59; different in different situations, 74 ¶
King, from whom to be chosen 60; the guardian of his people 168 ¶
King's children, what to be done with, 100 ¶
King's power, what it should be 100; when unequal, 143 ¶
Kingdom, what, 78 ¶
Kingdoms, their object, 167; how bestowed, 168; causes of their dissolution, 173; how preserved, 173 ¶
Kingly government in the heroic times, what, 96 ¶
Kingly power regulated by the laws at Sparta in peace, 95; absolute in war, 95 ¶
Kings formerly in Crete, 58; their power afterwards devolved to the kosmoi, 58; method of electing them at Carthage, 60 ¶
Knowledge of the master and slave different from each other, ii ¶
Kosmoi, the power of, 58; their number, 58; wherein inferior to the ephori, 58; allowed to resign their office before their time is elapsed, 59 ¶
Lacedamonian customs similar to the Cretan, 57 ¶
Lacedaemonian government much esteemed, 41; the faults of it, 53-56; calculated only for war, 56; how composed of a democracy and oligarchy, 124 ¶
Lacedaemonian revenue badly raised, 56, 57 ¶
Lacedaemonians, wherein they admit things to be common, 33 ¶
Land should be divided into two parts, 219 ¶
Law makes one man a slave, another free, 6; whether just or not, 9; at Thebes respecting tradesmen, 75; nothing should be done contrary to it, 160 ¶
Law and government, their difference, 107, 108 ¶
Laws, when advantageous to alter them, 49,50, 52; of every state will be like the state, 88; whom they should be calculated for, 92; decide better than men, 101; moral preferable to written, 102; must sometimes bend to ancient customs, 117; should be framed to the state, 107; the same suit not all governments, 108 ¶
Legislator ought to know not only what is best, but what is practical, n ¶
Legislators should fix a proper medium in property, 46 ¶
Liberty, wherein it partly consists, 184, 185 ¶
Life, happy, owing to a course of virtue, 125; how divided, 228 ¶
Locrians forbid men to sell their property, 43 ¶
Lycophron's account of law, 82 ¶
Lycurgus gave over reducing the women to obedience, 53; made it infamous for any one to sell his possessions, 53; some of his laws censured, 54; spent much time at Crete, 57; supposed to be the scholar of Thales, 64 ¶
Lysander wanted to abolish the kingly power in Sparta, 143 ¶
Magistrate, to whom that name is properly given, 136 ¶
Magistrates, when they make the state incline to an oligarchy, 61; when to an aristocracy, 61; at Athens, from whom to be chosen, 64; to determine those causes which the law cannot be applied to, 88; whether their power is to be the same, or different in different communities, 137; how they differ from each other, 138; in those who appoint them, 138; should be continued but a short time in democracies, 161; how to be chosen in a democracy, 185; different sorts and employments, 196 ¶
Making and using, their difference, 6 ¶
Malienses, their form of government, 131 ¶
Man proved to be a political animal, 4; has alone a perception of good and evil, 4; without law and justice the worst of beings, 5 ¶
Master, power of, whence it arises, as some think, 5 ¶
Matrimony, when to be engaged in, 232 ¶
Meals, common, established in Crete and Italy, 218; expense of, should be defrayed by the whole state, 219 ¶
Mechanic employments useful for citizens, 73 ¶
Mechanics, whether they should be allowed to be citizens, 74, 75; cannot acquire the practice of virtue, 75; admitted to be citizens in an oligarchy, 75 ¶
Medium of circumstances best, 126 ¶
Members of the community, their different pretences to the employments of the state, 90; what natural dispositions they ought to be of, 213 ¶
Men, some distinguished by nature for governors, others to be governed, 7; their different modes of living, 13; worthy three ways, 226 ¶
Merchandise, three different ways of carrying it on, 20 ¶
Middle rank of men make the best citizens, 127; most conducive to the preservation of the state, 128; should be particularly attended to by the legislators, 130 ¶
Military, how divided, 194 ¶
Mitylene, an account of a dispute there, 150 ¶
Monarch, absolute, 100 ¶
Monarchies, their nature, 95, 96; sometimes elective, 95; sometimes hereditary, 95; whence they sometimes arise, 146; causes of corruption in them, 167; how preserved, 173 ¶
Money, how it made its way into commerce, 16; first weighed, 16; afterwards stamped, 16; its value dependent on agreement, 16; how gained by exchange, 19 ¶
Money—getting considered at large, 17, 18 ¶
Monopolising gainful, 21; sometimes practised by cities, 21 ¶
Monopoly of iron in Sicily, a remarkable instance of the profit of it, 21 ¶
Music, how many species of it, in; why a part of education, 240; how far it should be taught, 242, 243; professors of it considered as mean people, 244; imitates the disposition of the mind, 246; improves our manners, 246; Lydian, softens the mind, 247; pieces of, difficult in their execution, not to be taught to children, 249 ¶
Nature requires equality amongst equals, 101 ¶
Naval power should be regulated by the strength of the city, 212 ¶
Necessary parts of a city, what, 215 ¶
Nobles, the difference between them, no; should take care of the poor, 193 ¶
Oath, an improper one in an oligarchy, 166 ¶
Officers of state, who they ought to be, 135; how long to continue, 135; who to choose them, 136 ¶
Offices, distinction between them, 67; when subversive of the rights of the people, 130 ¶
Offspring, an instance of the likeness of, to the sire, 30 ¶
Oligarchies arise where the strength of the state consists in horse, no; whence they arose, 142 ¶
Oligarchy admits not hired servants to be citizens, 75; its object, 79; what, 79, 81; its definition, 112; different sorts of, 117, 119; its object, 122; how it ought to be founded, 195 ¶
Onomacritus supposed to have drawn up laws, 64 ¶
Ostracism, why established, 93, 146; its power, 93; a weapon in the hand of sedition, 94 ¶
Painting, why it should be made a part of education, 241 ¶
Particulars, five, in which the rights of the people will be undermined, 130 ¶
Pausanias wanted to abolish the ephori, 143 ¶
People, how they should be made one, 35; of Athens assume upon their victory over the Medes, 64; what best to submit to a kingly government, 104; to an aristocratic, 104; to a free state, 104; should be allowed the power of pardoning, not of condemning, 135 ¶
Periander's advice to Thrasy-bulus, 93, 169 ¶
Pericles introduces the paying of those who attended the court of justice, 64 ¶
Philolaus, a Theban legislator, quits his native country, 64 ¶
Phocea, an account of a dispute there, 150 ¶
Physician, his business, 86 ¶
Physicians, their mode of practice in Egypt, 98; when ill consult others, 102 ¶
Pittacus, 65 ¶
Plato censured, 180 ¶
Poor excused from bearing arms and from gymnastic exercises in an oligarchy, 131; paid for attending the public assemblies in a democracy, 131 ¶
Power of the master, its object, 77 ¶
Power, supreme, where it ought to be lodged, 84; why with the many, 85, 87 ¶
Powers of a state, different methods of delegating them to the citizens, 132-134 ¶
Preadvisers, court of, 135 ¶
Priesthood, to whom to be allotted, 217 ¶
Prisoners of war, whether they may be justly made slaves, 9 ¶
Private property not regulated the source of sedition, 42; Phaleas would have it equal, 42; how Phaleas would correct the irregularities of it, 43; Plato would allow a certain difference in it, 43 ¶
Property, its nature, 12; how it should be regulated, 32, 33; the advantages of having it private, 34; what quantity the public ought to have, 44; ought not to be common, 219 ¶
Public assemblies, when subversive of the liberties of the people, 130 ¶
Public money, how to be divided, 193 ¶
Qualifications necessary for those who are to fill the first departments in government, 164 ¶
Quality of a city, what meant by it, 129 ¶
Quantity, 129 ¶
Rest and peace the proper objects of the legislator, 230 ¶
Revolutions in a democracy, whence they arise, 152; in an oligarchy, 156 ¶
Rich fined in an oligarchy for not bearing arms and attending the gymnastic exercises, 131; receive nothing for attending the public assemblies in a democracy, 131 ¶
Rights of a citizen, whether advantageous or not, 203 ¶
Seditions sometimes prevented by equality, 45; their causes, 144-146; how to be prevented, 163 ¶
Senate suits a democracy, 185 ¶
Shepherds compose the second-best democracy, 189 ¶
Slave, his nature and use, 6; a chattel, 7; by law, how, 9 ¶
Slavery not founded in nature but law, as some think, 6 ¶
Slaves, an inquiry into the virtues they are capable of, 23; difficult to manage properly, 51; their different sorts, 73 ¶
Society necessary to man, 77 ¶
Society, civil, the greatest blessing to man, 4; different from a commercial intercourse, 82 ¶
Socrates, his mistakes on government, Book II. passim; his division of the inhabitants, 38; would have the women go to war, 38; Aristotle's opinion of his discourses, 38; his city would require a country of immeasurable extent, 39; his comparison of the human species to different kinds of metals, 40; his account of the different orders of men in a city imperfect, 3 ¶
Sojourners, their situation, 66 ¶
Solon's opinion of riches, 14; law for restraining property, 43; alters the Athenian government, 63 ¶
Soul by nature the governor over the body, and in what manner, 8; of man how divided, 228, 231 ¶
Speech a proof that man was formed for society, 4 ¶
State, each, consists of a great number of parts, 109; its disproportionate increase the cause of revolutions, 147; firm, what, 159 ¶
Stealing, how to be prevented, 44 ¶
Submission to government, when it is slavery, 206 ¶
Supreme power should be ultimately vested in the laws, 101 ¶
Syracuse, the government of, languid, 151 ¶
Temperance in a man different from a woman, 74 ¶
Temples, how to be built, 223 ¶
Thales, his contrivance to get money, 21; supposed to be the companion of Onomacritus, 64 ¶
Things necessary to be known for the management of domestic affairs, 19, 20; necessary in the position of a city, 220 ¶
Tribunals, what different things they should have under their jurisdictions, 137 ¶
Tyrannies, how established, 168; how preserved, 174, 176; of short duration, 180; instances thereof, 180 ¶
Tyranny, what, 79; not natural, 103; whence it arises, 108; treated of, 124; contains all that is bad in all governments, 125 ¶
Tyrant, from whom usually chosen, 167; his object, 168; his guards, 168 ¶
Tyrants, many of them originally enjoyed only kingly power, 168; the causes of their being conspired against, 169, 170; always love the worst of men, 175 ¶
Uses of possessions, two, 15 ¶
Usury detested, 19 ¶
Venality to be guarded against, IDS ¶
Village, what, 3 ¶
Virtue of a citizen has reference to the state, 71; different in different governments, 71 ¶
Virtues different in different persons, 23, 24; whether the same constitute a good man and a valuable citizen, 71 ¶
Walls necessary for a city, 222 ¶
War, what is gained by it in some degree a natural acquisition, 14; not a final end, 205, 229 ¶
Wife, the proper government of, 22 ¶
Women, what their proper virtue, 23; not to be indulged in improper liberties, 52; had great influence at Lacedaemon, 52; of great disservice to the Lacedemonians, 52; why indulged by them, 53; their proper time of marrying, 233; how to be managed when with child, 234 ¶
Zaleucus, legislator of the Western Locrians, 64; supposed to be the scholar of Thales, 64 ¶